etiologies of sperm oxidative stress

sperm is particularly susceptible to reactive oxygen species (ros) during critical phases of spermiogenesis. however, the level of seminal ros is restricted by seminal antioxidants which have beneficial effects on sperm parameters and developmental potentials. mitochondria and sperm plasma membrane are two major sites of ros generation in sperm cells. besides, leukocytes including polymer phonuclear (pmn) leukocytes and macrophages produce broad category of molecules including oxygen free radicals, non-radical species and reactive nitrogen species. physiological role of ros increase the intracellular camp which then activate protein kinase in male reproductive system. this indicates that spermatozoa need small amounts of ros to acquire the ability of nuclear maturation regulation and condensation to fertilize the oocyte. there is a long list of intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can induce oxidative stress to interact with lipids, proteins and dna molecules. as a result, we have lipid peroxidation, dna fragmentation, axonemal damage, denaturation of the enzymes, over generation of superoxide in the mitochondria, lower antioxidant activity and finally abnormal spermatogenesis. if oxidative stress is considered as one of the main cause of dna damage in the germ cells, then there should be good reason for antioxidant therapy in these conditions.